7.6 ADVERSE REACTION TO FOOD
猫狗食物不良反应主要表现为瘙痒和胃肠道症状。人对于坚果或其他食物的急性过敏反应还不曾在宠物食品中报道过。
Adverse food reactions in cats and dogs are mainly expressed by pruritus and gastrointestinal signs. Acute anaphylactic reactions such as those seen in a minority of people who are allergic to nuts and some other foods have not been reported in relation to pet food.
7.6.2.1. Adverse reactions to food
对食物的不良反应是指对摄入食物或食品添加剂的不正常或夸大的临床反应。它可能是免疫 导的(称为食物过敏或超敏)或非免疫介导的(称为食物不耐受)(Reedy LM et al. 1997) 超敏反应共有4个类型，I型超敏又称过敏
An adverse reaction to a food is an abnormal or exaggerated clinical response to the ingestion of a food or food additive. It may be immune mediated (called food allergy or hypersensitivity) or not immune mediated (called food intolerance) (Reedy LM et al. 1997).
过敏免疫介导的反应导致7.6.4下描述的一种或多种猫狗食物的不良反应的临床症状。
Allergy Immune-mediated reaction resulting in one or more of the clinical signs described under 7.6.4. Adverse reactions to food in cats and dogs.
过敏反应是一种由暴露于一种危险性的诱因而引起的急性危及生命的多系统过敏反应。在人类中，食物、昆虫叮咬和药物是最常见的原因(Oswalt M and Kemp SF 2007, Tang AW 2003, Wang J and Sampson HA 2007)。这一术语曾被不同程度地用于表示ige介导的抗原诱导反应，或作为描述未阐明免疫学意义的严重、突然、不良事件的描述性术语(Wasserman SI 1983)。
Anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis is an acute life-threatening multi-system allergic reaction resulting from exposure to an offending agent. In people, foods, insect stings, and medication are the most common causes (Oswalt M and Kemp SF 2007, Tang AW 2003, Wang J and Sampson HA 2007). The term has been variably employed to denote a defined IgE-mediated antigen-induced reaction or as a descriptive term delineating a severe, abrupt, untoward event of unstated immunologic significance (Wasserman SI 1983).
7.6.2.3. Non-allergic food hypersensitivity
一种对食物成分的非免疫介导反应，其引起的临床症状类似于对食物的免疫介导反应(食物过敏)。
Food idiosyncrasy A non-immune mediated reaction to a food component that causes clinical signs resembling an immune-mediated reaction to food (food allergy).
食物不耐受。例如，非免疫介导的条件，可能是代谢缺陷的结果。
Food intolerance Non-immunological mediated condition that may be the result of a metabolic deficit, for example.
7.6.2.4. All individuals susceptible if sufficient quantity eaten
Toxic reaction Reaction to a toxic food component (e.g. onions).
微生物反应：对污染生物体(如霉菌毒素)释放的毒素的反应。
Microbiological reaction Reaction to a toxin released by contaminating organisms (e.g. mycotoxins).
药物学反应：食物中天然存在的或人工添加化学物质，这些物质所产生的类药物或药物，引起的食物的不良反应。如：巧克力中的甲基黄嘌呤，未好好保存的高组胺鱼类：金枪鱼和三文鱼。
Pharmacologic reaction Adverse reaction to a food as result of a naturally derived or added chemical producing a drug-like or pharmacological effect in the host such as methylxanthines in chocolate or pseudo-allergic reactions caused by high histamine levels in not well-preserved scromboid fish (tuna or salmon).
饮食不当：由于暴饮暴食、异食癖或摄入各种无法消化的物质或垃圾等行为而引起的不良反应。
Dietary indiscretion Adverse reaction resulting from such behaviour as gluttony, pica or ingestion of various indigestible materials or garbage.
7.6.3. Food allergy in humans
人类的食物过敏是医院急诊科里最常见的过敏反应原因，约占所见病例的三分之一(蜜蜂蜇伤病因的两倍)(Sampson HA 1999)。据估计，美国每年约有100例食物引起的致人死亡的过敏反应(Sampson HA 1999)。引起人类过敏反应的最常见的过敏原是坚果、贝类、牛奶、蛋清、豆类、某些水果、谷物、巧克力和鱼(Wasserman SI 1983)。据我们所知，人类因摄入或接触宠物食品而引起的过敏病例在文献中未见报道。
Food allergies are the single most common cause of generalised anaphylaxis seen in hospital emergency departments, accounting for about one third of cases seen (twice the number of cases seen for bee stings) (Sampson HA 1999). It is estimated that about 100 fatal cases of food-induced anaphylaxis occur in the US each year (Sampson HA 1999). The most common allergens causing anaphylaxis in people are nuts, shellfish, milk, egg white, legumes, certain fruits, grains, chocolate, and fish (Wasserman SI 1983). As far as we are aware of, cases of allergies in humans related to ingestion or contact with pet foods are not reported in the literature.
7.6.4. Adverse reactions to food in cats and dogs
犬和猫的主要临床症状(几乎100%)是瘙痒(Rosser EJ 1993, Scott D 2001, White S 1986, White S and Sequoia D 1989)。瘙痒可以是全身性或局部性的，有时仅限于复发性耳炎。其他皮肤病变如脂溢病、复发性脓皮病或马拉色菌在过敏犬中也可见(Scott D 2001, White S 1986)。在过敏的猫中，嗜酸性斑块，粟粒性皮炎或过度梳理引起的脱发，可能是目前唯一的临床症状(Scott D 2001, White S 1986)。
The predominant clinical sign in dogs and cats (almost 100% of the cases) is pruritus (itching) (Rosser EJ 1993, Scott D 2001, White S 1986, White S and Sequoia D 1989). The pruritus can be generalised or localised, sometimes being restricted to recurrent otitis. Other dermatological changes such as seborrhoea, recurrent pyoderma or Malassezia can be seen in allergic dogs (Scott D 2001, White S 1986). In allergic cats eosinophilic plaque, miliary dermatitis or alopecia caused by excessive grooming can be the only clinical sign present (Scott D 2001, White S 1986).
据估计，10 - 15%的狗和猫的食物过敏病例被认为引起胃肠道症状，如:腹泻和呕吐(Scott D 2001)。然而，胃肠道症状可能非常离散(例如更频繁的排便)(Scott D 2001)，其患病率可能被低估(Loeffler A et al. 2004, Loeffler A et al. 2006)。
An estimated 10 to 15 % of the cases of food allergy in dogs and cats are believed to result into gastrointestinal (GI) signs such as: diarrhoea and vomiting (Scott D 2001). However, the GI signs can be very discrete (e.g. more frequent bowel movements) (Scott D 2001) and their prevalence may be underestimated (Loeffler A et al. 2004, Loeffler A et al. 2006).
猫和狗的免疫介导反应在实践中很少得到证实。因此，对食物的不良反应这个术语被普遍接受并用于猫和狗。
In cats and dogs immune mediated reactions are seldom confirmed in practice. Therefore, the term adverse reactions to food is generally accepted and used for cats and dogs.
对于狗和猫来说，诊断食物不良反应的方法是排除法，通过排除饮食中的某一成分，直到皮肤或肠胃道症状消失。理想情况下，当症状消失后，再重新引入疑似成分来证实这一点(Helm RM 2002, Wills J et al. 1994)。
In dogs and cats, adverse reactions to food are only diagnosed through the elimination of the food component (eviction diet) following either dermatological or digestive symptoms (or both). Ideally this should be confirmed by a challenge (reintroduction of the suspected component) after clinical signs have disappeared when feeding the eviction diet (Helm RM 2002, Wills J et al. 1994).
食物不良反应被认为约占所有犬类皮肤病的1- 5%，猫科皮肤病的1- 6%(兽医诊所提供的数据)(reed LLM et al. 1997)。大多数食品成分都有可能引起不良反应，因为它们含有完整的蛋白质。
Adverse reactions to food are deemed to account for about 1-5 % of all skin conditions in dogs and 1-6 % of all feline dermatoses (animal presented to veterinary practices) (Reedy LLM et al. 1997). Most food ingredients have the potential to induce adverse reactions because they contain intact proteins.
现在，我们生产的所有宠物食品基本上都包含了完整的蛋白质(除了以水解蛋白为唯一蛋白质来源的特殊饲料)。所有含有完整蛋白质的产品都可能在易过敏动物中引起过敏/不良反应(McDonald JM 1997)。狗和猫似乎对某些蛋白质反应更频繁(威尔斯J和哈维R, 1994)。牛奶，牛肉，鸡蛋，谷物和乳制品是最常被提及的，然而更多的对照试验提到小麦，大豆，鸡肉和玉米是最重要的过敏原。然而，这些数据是否从人类文献中借鉴而来并不总是很清楚。此外，也不清楚高发病率是否仅仅是因为猫狗比人类更频繁地食用这些蛋白质。
Now, intact proteins are part of all products made by our industry including all petfoods(except special diets with hydrolysed proteins as the sole source of protein). All products containing intact protein can potentially cause allergic/adverse reactions in predisposed animals (McDonald JM 1997). There are proteins against which dogs and cats seem to react more often (Wills J and Harvey R 1994). Milk, beef, eggs, cereals and dairy products are mentioned most often whereas more controlled studies mentioned wheat, soy, chicken and maize as the most important allergens. However, it is not always clear whether these data are taken over from human literature or not. In addition, the data do not always enable to see whether the high incidence is not simply the consequence of the fact that those proteins have been eaten more frequently by dogs and cats.
通过兽医，为对食物有不良反应的狗和猫提供选定的蛋白质来源或水解蛋白质制成的特殊饮食。这些食品的配方和标签受欧盟关于动物营养食品（处方粮）的具体立法的管制。
Through veterinarians, special diets made with selected protein sources or hydrolysed proteins are available for dogs and cats suffering of adverse reactions to food; the formulation and the label declarations for those foods are regulated by the specific EU legislation on dietetic foods for animals.
如果经常喂狗和猫，大多数含有蛋白质的成分都有可能引起过敏反应。
1. Most protein containing ingredients have the potential to induce allergic reactions if they are regularly fed to dogs and cats.
迄今为止，还没有文献报道人类的食物过敏反应与猫和狗有关。狗和猫对食物的不良反应的标志是瘙痒。
2. Anaphylactic reactions to food as seen in humans are not, as far as we know, reported in literature relating to cats and dogs. The hallmark of adverse reaction in dogs and cats to food is pruritus.
7.7.RISKS OF SOME HUMAN FOODS REGULARLY GIVEN TO PETS
在附件7.7中记录了一些会导致不良反应的食物，如葡萄干、葡萄、洋葱、大蒜和巧克力。这些食物无论是作为宠物零食亦或作为人类食物分享给它们，都是有害的。这份附录列出了症状，饲主应该警惕这些症状。也列出了一些相关信息。这些信息不容易找到或是最近刚发布的。可能还有其他食物在喂狗或猫的时候有潜在的危险，但它们还没有被记录下来。
ANNEX 7.7. provides some practical information about some common human foods (such as raisins, grapes, onions, garlic and chocolate) with documented adverse effects when given to dogs or cats either as a treat or when left over from the table are shared with pets. This annex lists signs that should alert pet owners and combines information that is not easily found in one place or has only been available recently. There may be other foods that are potentially hazardous when fed to dogs or cats, but they are not yet documented.
7.7.1 Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs
自1989年以来，美国防止虐待动物协会的动物中毒控制中心(APCC)记录了狗吃葡萄或葡萄干中毒的案例。从2003年4月到2004年4月，APCC处理了140个病例，其中50只出现临床症状，7只死亡(ASPCA 2004)。美国和英国也报告了病例(Eubig PA et al. 2005, Penny D et al.2003)。
Since 1989 the Animal Poison Control Centre (APCC) of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals has recorded cases of poisoning in dogs that had eaten grapes (Vitis spp) or raisins. From April 2003 to April 2004 the APCC managed 140 cases, of which 50 dogs developed clinical signs and seven died (ASPCA 2004). Cases have been reported in the USA and the UK (Eubig PA et al. 2005, Penny D et al. 2003).
7.7.1.2. Clinical signs and pathology
受影响的狗通常会出现肠胃不适，随后是急性肾功能衰竭(ARF)。葡萄或葡萄干中毒的最初症状是呕吐(100%的报告病例)，随后是嗜睡、厌食、腹泻、腹痛、运动失调和虚弱(Eubig PA et al. 2005)。大多数狗在接触后的24小时内会出现呕吐、厌食、嗜睡和腹泻，在某些情况下，呕吐最早在摄入后5 - 6小时就开始了(Eubig PA et al. 2005)。呕吐物和或粪便可能含有部分消化的葡萄或葡萄干或肿胀的葡萄干。ARF的典型症状可在24小时或几天后出现。这包括尿素、血肌酐、钙x磷产物、血清磷以及后来的总钙水平的显著增加(Eubig PA等，2005年)。
Affected dogs typically suffer gastrointestinal upset followed by acute renal failure (ARF). The initial signs of grape or raisin toxicity are vomiting (100 % of reported cases) followed by lethargy, anorexia, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, ataxia, and weakness (Eubig PA et al. 2005). In the majority of dogs, vomiting, anorexia, lethargy and diarrhoea occur within the first 24 hours of exposure, in some cases vomiting starts as early as 5 to 6 hours after ingestion (Eubig PA et al. 2005). The vomit and or faeces may contain partially digested grapes or raisins or swollen raisins. Classic signs of ARF can develop within 24 hours or up to several days later. These include substantial increases in blood urea and serum creatinine, as well as in the calcium x phosphorus product, serum phosphorus and later in total calcium level (Eubig PA et al. 2005).
如果病情恶化，狗狗最终将无法排尿。在这一阶段，预判病情一般都很糟糕了，通常决定对动物实施安乐死。报告中最一致的组织病理学病变是弥漫性肾小管变性，特别是近端肾小管(Eubig PA et al. 2005)。肾坏死结构的矿化已被报道，但也有小管细胞再生的一些病例。矿化和/或肾外组织和器官充血也被观察到(Eubig PA et al. 2005)。然而，必须指出的是，许多狗在吃了葡萄干或葡萄后不会出现AFR。
If the condition progresses, the dog eventually is unable to pass urine. At this stage the prognosis is generally poor and usually a decision is taken to euthanize the animal. The most consistent histopathological lesions reported were diffuse renal tubular degeneration, especially in the proximal tubules (Eubig PA et al. 2005). Mineralization of necrotic renal structures has been reported, but also tubular cell regeneration in some cases. Mineralization and/ or congestion of extra-renal tissues and organs have also been observed (Eubig PA et al. 2005). It has to be pointed out, however, that many dogs never develop AFR after ingestion of raisins or grapes.
到目前为止，这种或这些有毒物还没有被检测出来。多种物质的分析证实被排除，包括霉菌毒素、重金属、农药和维生素D3 (AFIP 2003, Eubig PA etal . 2005)。推测其原因可能是肾毒素或过敏性休克导致肾脏问题(afip2003)。也有人认为，过量的糖摄入会导致糖代谢紊乱，但这似乎不太可能，因为狗对高糖摄入并不敏感。
The toxic agent (or agents) has so far defied detection. Analysis for a variety of substances has proved negative, including mycotoxins, heavy metals, pesticides and vitamin D3 (AFIP 2003, Eubig PA et al. 2005). It is postulated that the cause may be a nephrotoxin or anaphylactic shock leading to renal problems (AFIP 2003). Excess sugar intake has also been suggested, resulting in a disturbance of sugar metabolism, but this seems unlikely as dogs are not known for susceptibilities to high sugar intake.
中毒似乎发生在所有类型的葡萄和葡萄干:从商店购买的或在家里种植的，从酒厂压榨的葡萄和无籽和有籽品种(Eubig PA等，2005年)。葡萄提取物不被认为是一种威胁;葡萄或葡萄干本身必须吃下才会中毒(McKnight K 2005)。到目前为止，据报道导致中毒的最低摄入量是每公斤体重2.8克葡萄干和19.6克葡萄;一只狗只吃了10到12颗葡萄就生病了(Eubig PA et al. 2005)。疾病的严重程度似乎与剂量无关(Eubig PA et al. 2005)。即使是40公斤的大狗，可能只需要吃120克就有危险，并且一盒葡萄干通常是500g，因此可能一次接触就会摄入过量而中毒。目前看来，似乎只有狗受影响，其他物种的易感性是未知的。
The poisoning seems to occur with grapes and raisins of all types: those purchased from a store or grown at home, grape pressings from wineries and seedless and seeded varieties (Eubig PA et al. 2005). Grape extract is not considered a threat; the grape or raisin itself has to be eaten for poisoning to occur (McKnight K 2005). The lowest intake that has so far been reported to cause poisoning is around 2.8 g of raisins per kg bodyweight (BW) and 19.6 g of grapes per kg BW; one dog became ill after only eating 10 to 12 grapes (Eubig PA et al. 2005). The severity of the illness does not seem to be dose-related (Eubig PA et al. 2005). Even a large dog of 40 kg may need to eat only 120 g to be at risk and as cartons of raisins typically contain 500 g this amount could be ingested in one session. At present it appears that only dogs are affected – the susceptibility of other species is unknown.
立即的治疗包括诱导呕吐和洗胃以清除毒素，然后用活性炭去污染以灭活剩余的毒素。积极的输液治疗是增加生存机会的关键，并应维持足够长的时间(至少48小时)。血液透析和利尿剂如速尿已被推荐用于治疗ARF和少尿(McKnight K, 2005)，但似乎并不能显著提高生存率(Eubig PA等，2005)。
Immediate treatment consists of inducing emesis and lavage of the stomach to remove the poison, followed by decontamination using activated charcoal to inactivate the remaining poison. Aggressive fluid therapy is essential to increase the chances of survival, and should be maintained long enough (at least 48 hours). Haemodialysis and diuretics such as furosemide have been recommended to treat the ARF and oliguria (McKnight K 2005), but do not seem to increase survival substantially (Eubig PA et al. 2005).
在第二次世界大战期间，由于可可豆的副产品被用于补充饲料，导致猪、小牛、狗和马频繁中毒。
Cocoa poisoning was highlighted during the Second World War, when pigs, calves, dogs and horses were poisoned because by-products of cacao beans were used to supplement feeds as a result of a surplus.
巧克力对大多数狗狗来说很美味，但它也不是一种无害的零食，因为它有相对的毒性。在狗身上，中毒的迹象可能在食用后数小时内出现。
Chocolate is palatable to most dogs, but it is not an innocent snack being relatively toxic. In dogs signs of toxicity may develop within hours after consumption.
此外，最好避免食用巧克力蛋糕和其他含有可可粉的人类食物。这并不奇怪，大多数事故都是在假日期间报告的，如圣诞节和复活节(Campbell A 2001)。专门为狗狗开发的巧克力是无毒的，因为它们的成分中所含可可碱含量很低，甚至不含可可碱。
In addition, chocolate cakes and other cocoa containing human foods are best avoided. It is not surprising that most accidents are reported during holiday periods such as Christmas and Easter (Campbell A 2001). Chocolate treats specially developed for dogs are not toxic as they are made from ingredients that contain low or no theobromine.
据我们所知，目前还没有关于猫巧克力中毒的报道，这可能是由于它们不同的饮食习惯造成的。
No reports of chocolate poisoning in cats have been published to our knowledge, probably as a consequence of their different eating habits.
巧克力和可可产品的主要有毒成分是甲基黄嘌呤生物碱，其中可可碱是主要的毒素(Campbell A 2001)。早在1917年，法国研究人员就将马的可可豆壳中毒归因于可可碱。可可碱对狗的毒性尤其大，因为与人类等其他物种相比，狗对可可碱的排出速度非常缓慢(Glauberg A et al. 1983, Hooser S et al. 1986)。可可碱在狗体内的半衰期约为17.5小时(Farbman D 2001, Hooser S and Beasley V 1986)。因为可可碱可以经过肠肝再循环产生累积效应(Campbell A 2001, Farbman D 2001)，所以，反复摄入少量不足以致毒的食物仍然可能导致中毒。因为可可碱在狗体内排出的速度很慢，这也会导致患犬存活率下降，即使在临床症状已经减弱的阶段仍可能发生死亡(Strachan E et al. 1994)。
The principle toxic components of chocolate and cocoa products are the methylxanthine alkaloids, of which theobromine is the major toxin (Campbell A 2001). As long ago as 1917, cacao bean shell intoxication in horses was attributed to theobromine by French researchers. Theobromine is particularly toxic to dogs, because its elimination is very slow compared with the rate in other species such as man (Glauberg A et al. 1983, Hooser S et al. 1986). The half-life of theobromine in dogs is about 17.5 hours (Farbman D 2001, Hooser S and Beasley V 1986). Theobromine undergoes enterohepatic recirculation resulting in an accumulative effect (Campbell A 2001, Farbman D 2001). As a consequence, repeated intakes of smaller (non-toxic) quantities may still cause intoxication. The slow elimination of theobromine is also responsible for decreased survival rate in affected dogs and death may still occur at a stage when clinical signs are already attenuating (Strachan E et al. 1994).
咖啡因是另一种在可可产品中存在的甲基黄嘌呤，可能会导致毒性。然而，可可制品中的咖啡因含量远低于可可碱，半衰期也短得多(4.5小时)(Farbman D 2001, Hooser S and Beasley V 1986)。
Caffeine is another methylxanthine present in cocoa products, and may contribute to the toxicity. However, the levels of caffeine in cocoa products are much lower than those of theobromine and the half-life is much shorter (4.5 hours) (Farbman D 2001, Hooser S and Beasley V 1986).
据报道，可可碱的半数致死量在每公斤体重(BW) 250毫克到500毫克之间；在一些狗狗摄入巧克力致死的案例中，估计摄入的可可碱的量在 90-115 mg每公斤体重之间。(Carson TL 2006, Glauberg A and Blumenthal H 1983, Hooser S and Beasley V 1986)。
The LD50 of theobromine has been reported to be between 250 mg and 500 mg per kg body weight (BW); lethal cases have been seen when dogs ingested amounts of chocolate that reflect an estimated theobromine intake of 90-115 mg/kg BW (Carson TL 2006, Glauberg A and Blumenthal H 1983, Hooser S and Beasley V 1986).
巧克力的可可碱含量各不相同，其中黑巧克力的可可碱含量最高(表VII-15)。不加糖的烘焙巧克力绝对应该放在狗狗够不到的地方，因为它每克含有高达20毫克的可可碱。狗还会自愿吃可可粉，可可粉中可可碱的平均含量在每克10到30毫克之间(Sutton R 1981)。每公斤体重摄入大约4克可可粉就足以杀死一只狗(Faliu L 1991)。越来越多的可可壳被用于防止杂草生长和园林绿化。由于巧克力的气味，可可壳通常对狗有吸引力，因此可能是可可碱中毒的潜在原因(Hansen S et al. 2003)。
The level of theobromine content of chocolate varies, with dark chocolate containing the highest level (Table VII-15). Unsweetened baking chocolate should definitely be kept out of reach of dogs, since it contains up to 20 mg of theobromine per gram. Dogs also voluntarily eat cocoa powder, in which the average theobromine level varies from 10 to 30 mg/g (Sutton R 1981). About four grams of cocoa powder per kg BW may be sufficient to kill a dog (Faliu L 1991). Increasingly cocoa shell mulches are used to prevent weeds and for landscaping in gardens. They are often attractive to dogs because of the chocolate smell and therefore may be a potential cause of theobromine poisoning (Hansen S et al. 2003).
在狗体内，甲基黄嘌呤会刺激中枢神经系统，导致心动过速(心跳加速)、呼吸窘迫和过度活跃(Campbell A 2001, Farbman D 2001)。临床症状包括呕吐、腹泻、躁动、肌肉震颤和虚弱、心律失常、抽搐，严重病例还包括肾损害、昏迷和死亡(Decker R和Meyer G 1972年，Farbman D 2001年，Glauberg A和Blumenthal H 1983年，Hooser S和Beasley V 1986年，Nicholson S 1995年)。摄入过量的巧克力或可可制品后6 - 15小时内可能发生死亡(Decker Rand Meyer G 1972, Drolet R et al. 1984, Glauberg A and Blumenthal H 1983)。尸检可见肝脏、肾脏、胰腺和胃肠道充血，腹膜和胸腔有未凝血的出血液(Strachan E和Bennett A 1994, Sutton R 1981)。
In dogs methylxanthines cause stimulation of the central nervous system with tachycardia (fast heart beating), respiratory stress and hyperactivity (Campbell A 2001, Farbman D 2001). The clinical signs include vomiting, diarrhoea, agitation, muscular tremors and weakness, cardiac arrhythmias, convulsions, and, in severe cases, renal damage, coma and death (Decker R and Meyer G 1972, Farbman D 2001, Glauberg A and Blumenthal H 1983, Hooser S and Beasley V 1986, Nicholson S 1995). Death may occur within six to 15 hours after intake of excessive amounts of chocolate or cocoa products (Decker R and Meyer G 1972, Drolet R et al. 1984, Glauberg A and Blumenthal H 1983). At necropsy, congestion in liver, kidneys, pancreas and the gastro-intestinal tract are seen, as well as unclotted haemorrhagic fluid in peritoneal and thoracic cavities (Strachan E and Bennett A 1994, Sutton R 1981).
可可碱没有特定的解药，只有对症治疗。为了尽量减少可可碱的吸收，可在摄入后立刻诱发呕吐。随后可以用温水灌洗以保持巧克力在肠胃内是液体状态。然后，可以使用2倍剂量的活性炭来吸附剩余的巧克力，防止进一步吸收和增加排泄(Carson TL 2006, Farbman D 2001, Glauberg A and Blumenthal H 1983, Hooser S and Beasley V 1986)。
No specific antidote is available for theobromine, only symptomatic treatment. In order to minimise the absorption of theobromine vomiting can be induced immediately after ingestion. Subsequently lavage can be applied with warm water to keep the chocolate liquid. Repeated doses of activated charcoal can then be used to bind the remaining material and prevent further absorption and increase excretion (Carson TL 2006, Farbman D 2001, Glauberg A and Blumenthal H 1983, Hooser S and Beasley V 1986).
7.7.3 Toxicity of onions and garlic in cats & dogs
自1930年以来，人们就知道狗对洋葱(Allium spp)非常敏感，无论是生的、熟的还是脱水的。
It has been known since 1930 that dogs are very sensitive to onions (Allium spp) whether raw, cooked or dehydrated.
7.7.3.2 Clinical signs and pathology
据报道，猫和狗在食用洋葱或含有洋葱的食物后会出现明显的有海恩茨小体形成的再生贫血(Harvey JW et al. 1985, Kaplan A 1995, Robertson JE et al. 1998, Spice R 1976, Tvedten HW et al. 1996)。摄入足够数量的洋葱会导致红细胞磷脂膜的氧化损伤和血红蛋白的不可逆氧化变性。这导致海恩茨小体的形成,eccentrocytes(红细胞和血红蛋白聚集在细胞的一侧，使细胞更容易比正常红细胞裂解)、溶血性贫血,血红素尿、血清胆红素升高,有可能导致高铁血红蛋白血症 (Cope R 2005, Faliu L 1991, Harvey J W and Rackear D 1985, Kaplan A 1995, Lee K-W et al. 2000, Means C 2002, Robertson ID 2003)。相对少量的新鲜洋葱(每公斤体重5到10克)已经是有毒的了(Cope R 2005, Faliu L 1991)。Robertson JE等人(1998)表明，症状的程度与剂量有关。
Regenerative anaemia with marked Heinz body formation has been reported in cats and dogs after eating onions or onion containing foods (Harvey JW et al. 1985, Kaplan A 1995, Robertson JE et al. 1998, Spice R 1976, Tvedten HW et al. 1996). Consumption of a sufficient amount of onions leads to oxidative injury of the lipid membrane of the erythrocytes and irreversible oxidative denaturation of haemoglobin. This results in formation of Heinz bodies, eccentrocytes (red blood cells with haemoglobin clustering at one side of the cell, which makes these cells more susceptible to lysis than normal red blood cells), haemolytic anaemia, haemoglobinuria, increased serum bilirubin and possibly methaemoglobinaemia (Cope R 2005, Faliu L 1991, Harvey J W and Rackear D 1985, Kaplan A 1995, Lee K-W et al. 2000, Means C 2002, Robertson ID 2003). Relatively small amounts of fresh onions (5 to 10 g/kg BW) can already be toxic (Cope R 2005, Faliu L 1991). Robertson JE et al. (1998) showed that effect was dose dependent.
临床症状继发于贫血，包括细胞膜黏膜苍白、心跳过快、呼吸急促、嗜睡和虚弱(Cope R 2005, Gfeller RW et al. 1998b)。也可能出现呕吐、腹泻和腹痛。如果只吃了少量的洋葱，海恩茨小体贫血在停止吃洋葱后就会自行消失(Kaplan a 1995, Robertson JEetal)。1998)。在更严重的病例中，红血球溶解破裂和血红素尿能分别引起黄疸和肾功能衰竭，并可能导致死亡(Cope R 2005, Ogawa E et al. 1986)。
The clinical signs are secondary to the anaemia and include pale mucous membranes, tachycardia, tachypnoea, lethargy and weakness (Cope R 2005, Gfeller RW et al. 1998b). Vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal pain may also be present. If only a moderate amount of onions has been eaten, the Heinz body anaemia resolves spontaneously after discontinuing the onions (Kaplan A 1995, Robertson JEetal. 1998). In more severe cases, icterus and renal failure can be seen as a consequence of the haemolysis and haemoglobinuria respectively, and possibly death (Cope R 2005, Ogawa E et al. 1986).
尽管洋葱摄入据报道是最常见的导致狗海恩茨小体的身体溶血(Weiser M 1995)。但是因为临床症状往往要会延迟好几天出现，所以人们经常会忽略是因为摄入了洋葱从而导致的生病。(Cope R 2005, Weiser M 1995)。
Although onion ingestion has been reported as being the most common cause of Heinz body haemolysis in dogs (Weiser M 1995), it may be difficult to correlate clinical signs with the onion ingestion because of the lag of several days before the onset of clinical signs (Cope R 2005, Weiser M 1995).
虽然洋葱中毒的事件在狗身上更为常见，但其实猫对洋葱和大蒜中毒更为敏感，因为它们特殊的血红蛋白结构，使它们更容易受到氧化应激的影响(Giger U 2005)。
Although onion poisoning is more common in dogs, cats are more sensitive to onion and garlic poisoning owing to their specific haemoglobin structure, making them more susceptible to oxidative stress (Giger U 2005).
据报道，大蒜和韭菜也会导致狗的海恩茨小体、离心细胞、溶血性贫血和高铁血红蛋白水平升高(Lee K-W et al. 2000, Yamato O et al. 2005)。Lee KW等人(2000年)报告说，每公斤体重摄入1.25毫升大蒜提取物(相当于每公斤体重摄入5克大蒜)服用7天后会产生毒性作用，剂量与洋葱中毒报告的剂量相似。
Garlic and Chinese chives have also been reported to cause the development of Heinz bodies, eccentrocytes, haemolytic anaemia and increases in methaemoglobin levels in dogs (Lee K-W et al. 2000, Yamato O et al. 2005). Lee KW et al. (2000) reported toxic effects after administration of 1.25 ml garlic extract per kg BW (equivalent to 5 g/kg BW of whole garlic) for 7 days, this is similar to the amounts reported in onion poisoning.
据报道，摄入洋葱和大蒜后，还原型谷胱甘肽的含量会增加，这似乎与氧化损伤前后矛盾。还原性谷胱甘肽的这种增加是一种补偿反弹效应，是为了补偿最开始减少的还原性谷胱甘肽和其他体内抗氧化剂（氧化损伤造成损失后，身体做出的反应——补充还原型谷胱）以及对抗体内增加的氧化型谷胱甘肽。
The increase in reduced glutathione (G-SH), which has been reported after ingestion of onions and garlic, may seem inconsistent with oxidative damage, but the increase can be a compensatory rebound reaction after an initial decrease in G-SH and other body antioxidants, and an increase in oxidised glutathione (GSSG) within the first few days (Ogawa E et al. 1986, Yamato O et al. 1992).
具有遗传性红细胞还原型谷胱甘肽浓度高和钾浓度高的狗似乎对洋葱和大蒜中毒更敏感(Yamato O和Maede Y 1992)。
Dogs with hereditary high erythrocyte concentrations of reduced glutathione and potassium appear to be more sensitive to onion and garlic poisoning (Yamato O and Maede Y 1992).
野生洋葱(validum和加拿大洋葱)和野生大蒜(ursinum)会导致马和反刍动物的溶血性贫血(Lee K-W et al. 2000)，对狗和猫也有潜在的毒性。
Wild onions (A. validum & A. Canadense) and wild garlic (A. ursinum) have caused haemolytic anaemia in horses and ruminants (Lee K-W et al. 2000) and are potentially toxic for dogs and cats as well.
一些有机亚砜与洋葱和大蒜引起的毒性有关(表VII-16)。Miyata D(1990)报道了从洋葱中提取的一种未命名的酚类化合物，该物质在体外实验中对红细胞产生类似的毒性(Miyata D 1990)。大蒜素是一种存在于大蒜中的化合物，类似于存在于洋葱中的正丙基二硫化物(Gfeller RW and Messonnier SP 1998b)。这些有机硫化合物很容易在胃肠道中被吸收，并代谢成高度活性的氧化剂(Cope R 2005)。
Several organo-sulfoxides have been implicated in toxicity induced by onions and garlic (Table VII-16). Miyata D (1990) reported the extraction from onions of an unnamed phenolic compound causing similar effects on red blood cells “in vitro” (Miyata D 1990). Allicin, a compound found in garlic, is similar to n-propyl disulphide found in onions (Gfeller RW and Messonnier SP 1998b). These organosulfur compounds are readily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and metabolised to highly reactive oxidants (Cope R 2005).
从洋葱和大蒜中分离出来的，据报道可氧化犬红细胞化合物
目前尚无特效解毒剂，治疗也只是支持性的，旨在减少氧化作用，防止血红蛋白尿引起的肾脏损害。氧气治疗，输液治疗(特别是晶体)和输血已被推荐(Gfeller RW et al. 1998a)。如果病人在摄入洋葱后一小时内还没有出现临床症状，可以诱导呕吐(Gfeller RW and Messonnier SP 1998b)。抗氧化维生素(如维生素E和C)可能对病情较轻的情况有临床症状不明显的改善，但一项针对猫的研究显示对海恩茨小体的形成没有显著影响(Hill as et al. 2001)。
No specific antidote exists, and the treatment is supportive and is intended to reduce the oxidative effects and to prevent renal damage caused by haemoglobinuria. Oxygen therapy, fluid therapy (particularly crystalloids) and blood transfusion have been recommended (Gfeller RW et al. 1998a). Induction of vomiting can be useful within the first hour after ingestion of onions if the patient does not yet show clinical signs (Gfeller RW and Messonnier SP 1998b). Antioxidant vitamins such as vitamins E and C may have subclinical beneficial effects that help in milder cases, but a study in cats did not show a significant effect on the formation of Heinz bodies (Hill AS et al. 2001).
来源：我和宠物食品大佬们
